SARASOLA, J.H., NEGRO, J.J., BECHARD, M.J. and LANUSSE, A. 2011. Not as similar as thought: sexual dichromatism in Chimango caracaras is expressed in the exposed skin but not in the plumage. Journal of Ornithology 152:473-479.

Abstract: Many of the mechanisms involved in visual signalling in birds are based on pigment-based plumaje ornamentation and colouration rather than the expression of other, non-plumage-based displays. We have analysed the colouration of the tarsi and ceres of free-ranging Chimango Caracaras Milvago chimango, a controversial morphological trait for this species, and examined the proximal causes related to the expression of colour in these featherless body parts. The tarsi–ceres of 81 Chimango Caracaras captured in central Argentina between 2005 and 2008 were either yellow–yellow or bluish–pink coloured. Differences in colour were not linked with plasma carotenoid levels and did not vary seasonally. Rather, expression of the two colours was affected by the gender and age of individuals. Yellow-coloured tarsi and ceres were recorded only in adult males, while the remaining age and gender groups showed pinkish- and bluish-coloured bare parts, which is the suspected neutral developmental stage under low hormonal levels. These results support sexual rather than natural selection forces acting on the expression of yellow colouration in the bare parts of adult males. However, an exaggeration of yellowish colour during mating periods in accordance with an increase of circulating carotenoid levels may be expected due to the sexually-related nature of this trait. This documented partitioning of colour variation among sexes and ages that is unrelated to melanin-dependent plumages is unusual and contrary to the most widely observed types of sexual dichromatism in birds.

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